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For example, ER stress activates DNA damage inducible transcript 3 (DDIT3, also known as CHOP)- and mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (MAPK8, also known as JNK)-dependent apoptosis pathways, whereas heat shock protein family A member 5 (HSPA5, also known as BIP) SSG at Cys420/441 modulates ATPase activity and protein folding, paradoxically suppressing apoptosis 49

It also minimises transepidermal moisture loss, fortifying the skin's protective barrier

Confirmation across independent laboratories and head-to-head comparisons versus optimized free drug will be important to guide translation

Hence interventions targeting gut microbiota imbalance, such as dietary changes, supplements, and active compounds, may alleviate sarcopenia