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As a tripeptide antioxidant, glutathione neutralizes reactive oxygen species and helps maintain redox balance in skin cells, thereby reducing the signaling pathways that drive postinflammatory hyperpigmentation and photoinduced darkening

Transcriptional profiling studies further reveal that astrocyte subpopulations adopt divergent states ranging from neuroprotective to neurotoxic phenotypes in neurodegeneration, further underscoring the importance of astrocytic heterogeneity 40,41

Examples may include bitter melon and fenugreek

If medical therapies fail, surgical thyroidectomy may be undertaken but not without its risks: nerve damage, hypoparathyroidism, bleeding, and infection