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These advantageous actions of the tested agents were accounted to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties, along with their abilities to modulate HMGB1/RAGE/JAK-2/STAT-3, PI3K/AKT/CREB/BDNF/TrkB, AMPK/SIRT-1/m-TOR and PERK/CHOP/GRP78/Bcl-2 hubs, as main contributors in the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms in MSG-induced ADHD-like behaviors (Graphical abstract)

Glutathione Transport in the Kidneys The kidneys have specific mechanisms to transport glutathione into the renal cells

Figure 2 Interestingly, many of the initial studies elucidating NRF2-ARE-mediated cellular protection utilized tert -butyl hydroquinone (tBHQ), a synthetic antioxidant and inducer of the NRF2 pathway via its auto-oxidized, electrophilic form tert-butyl benzoquinone (tBQ) (Rushmore and Pickett, 1990

Age, sex, cohort, and HIV-1 subtype were assessed a priori as potential confounders for all subsequent analyses based on existing literature and biological relevance