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D-carnitine is the inactive enantiomer (mirror image) of L-carnitine

Abbreviations DM: Diabetes Mellitus IDF: International Diabetes Federation CVD: Cardiovascular diseases T1DM: Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus T2DM: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus GBD: Global Burden of Disease ASCVD: Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease HFPG: High Fasting Plasma Glucose LDL: Low-Density Lipoprotein HbA1c: Glycated Hemoglobin FPG: Fasting Plasma Glucose EASD: European Association for the Study of Diabetes ADA: American Diabetes Association AACE: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists CHD: Coronary Heart Disease PPG: Postprandial Plasma Glucose NIDDM: Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus MI: Myocardial Infarction OGTT: Oral Glucose Tolerance Test PKC: Protein Kinase C HBP: Hexosamine Biosynthetic Pathway AR: Aldose Reductase SDH: Sorbitol Dehydrogenase NADPH: Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (Reduced Form) GSH: Glutathione ROS: Reactive Oxygen Species NO: Nitric Oxide NAD + : Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide NADH: Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (Reduced form) AGEs: Advanced Glycation End-products CVS: Cardiovascular System ECs: Endothelial Cells AF: Atrial Fibrillation CHF: Congestive Heart Failure CAD: Coronary Artery Disease sRAGE: Soluble Receptors for AGEs esRAGE: Endogenous Secretory RAGE hsCRP: High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein TNF: Tumor Necrosis Factor IL-6: Interleukin-6 CML: N-(Carboxymethyl)lysine DAG: Diacylglycerol PKC: Protein Kinase C DHAP: Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate G3P: Glycerol-3-Phosphate GAPDH: Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase GAP: Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate VSMC: Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells RBX: Ruboxistaurin ETC: Electron Transport Chain FADH 2 : Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (Reduced Form) ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate ADP: Adenosine Diphosphate TGF-1: Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 PAI-1: Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 G6PD: Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase PPP: Pentose Phosphate Pathway NOX: NADPH Oxidase XO: Xanthine Oxidase Ang II: Angiotensin II K ATP : ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channel ONOO : Peroxynitrite O : Superoxide Radicals eNOS: Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase BH 4 : Tetrahydrobiopterin NAC: N-acetyl-L-cysteine CoQ10: Coenzyme Q10 Mito Q: Mitoquinone Mesylate ALA: Alpha-Lipoic Acid HBP: Hexosamine Biosynthetic Pathway GFPT: Glutamine-Fructose-6-Phosphate Transaminase UDP-GlcNAc: Uridine Diphosphate N-Acetylglucosamine O-GlcNAc: O-Linked N-Acetylglucosamine OGT: O-GlcNAc Transferase OGA: O-GlcNAcase ER: Endoplasmic Reticulum SERCA: Sarco/Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca 2 + -ATPase BAD: BCl - 2-Associated Death Promoter AMPK: Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase mTOR: Mechanistic Target Of Rapamycin VCAM-1: Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1 ICAM-1: Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 References Yameny AA

LaHood, Stephanie J