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The resulting metabolites, including amino acids (AAs) and fatty acids (FAs), are recycled to support biosynthesis and ATP production, making autophagy essential for stress adaptation (e.g., starvation), proteostasis, and organelle quality control ( Autophagy is a functional double-edged sword: basal activity is broadly cytoprotective, whereas insufficient or excessive autophagy can contribute to pathology (Figure 1) (Yamamoto and Matsui, 2024)

Surface modifications, such as the incorporation of transferrin ligands or neuropilin-1 peptides, have refined their targeting precision

d , Immunoblots of indicated proteins in HEK-293T cells expressing a vector control or GshF cDNA