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Mutations in the SLC19A3 gene that encodes THTR-2 causes biotin-thiamin-responsive basal ganglia disease, which is treated with high-dose co-supplementation with biotin and thiamin for life (see Biotin-thiamin-responsive basal ganglia disease below)

More doses of L-DOPA combined with decarboxylase inhibitors have to be repeated under this scenario, thus denoting a complicated interaction of PD medications with GI tract-related symptoms

Clinically, EDS technology has been incorporated into marketed therapies, including fluticasone delivered via EDS for chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps, and has demonstrated significant treatment improvement in patients (Leopold et al., 2019)

Once stabilized, treatments may be spaced every 24 weeks for maintenance