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In its most recent update, the NICE offers practitioners the option to choose between oral and intramuscular routes when malabsorption is not the cause of vitamin B12 deficiency [75]

This inflammatory response within the vasculature may stem from the activation of Nuclear Factor-kappa (NFk) (Zhao et al., 2017)

It has been shown that low serum vitamin B 12 is associated with a 2- to 4-fold higher risk of cognitive impairment.50 The prevalence of low serum vitamin B 12 has been reported to be significantly higher in the people with Alzheimers disease (AD).52 However, the causal relationship between vitamin B 12 deficiency and the development of AD remains controversial

The sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPases (SERCAs) move calcium ions into the ER, while plasma membrane Ca 2+ ATPases (PMCAs) transport calcium ions out of the cell