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Studies have further shown that LPS elevates the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) by astrocytes, followed by activating eNOS, inhibiting the expression of claudin-5 and occluding, and ultimately disrupting the barrier function of the BBB (Park et al., 2015) ( Figure 1 )

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423 Furthermore, the study emphasized that neurons in specific brain regions, such as the hindbrain and hypothalamus, co-express GLP-1R along with 1-adrenergic and -opioid receptors, suggesting a localized mechanism within the CNS that could coordinate peripheral anti-inflammatory responses

Data are represented as number of colonies per well relative to control