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Unlike autophagy or apoptosis, ferroptosis is specifically triggered by dysregulated lipid metabolism and impaired antioxidant defense, not by activation of established pathways like caspase

Compared with glucose, ketones are more efficiently utilized by neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes to provide more effective energy supply for brain cells [153]

Interleukin-1 (IL-1), a factor that mimics an inflammatory condition, is capable of triggering alterations in the ROS concentrations within chondrocytes

9 Therefore, regulating multiple cell types, including chondrocytes, synovial fibroblasts, immune cells, and osteocytes, is crucial for inhibiting the progression of OA