of DNA methylation patterns PEBP1 gene in rats [44] Reduction of sperm count and motility in rats [45] Alcohol consumption Reduction of seminal volume and sperm concentration [58,61,62] Impairment of sperm motility and morphology [60,61] Increased sperm polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon DNA adducts [72] Increase in apoptosis (by upregulation of Fas) of spermatogenic cells in rats [68] Alteration of nuclear maturity and DNA integrity in sperm cells of rats [70] Increase in ROS generation and depletion of glutathione pool in testicular tissue of rats [71] Impairment of sperm motility in rats [70] Drug addiction Marijuana Decrease in sperm count [8284] Impairment of sperm morphology and motility [85,102,103] Reduction of spontaneous acrosome reactions [102,103] Impaired sperm concentration and morphology in rats [91] Inhibition of sperm ATP production in rats [104] Reduction of fructose and citric acid contents in testis and prostate of male rats [95] Cocaine Impairment of sperm counts and motility [86] Vasoconstriction of testicular blood vessels in rats resulting in ischemic and reperfusion injuries [96] Reduction of diameter of seminiferous tubules [97] Decrease in number of total germ cells [97] Increase in oxidative stress in mice [98] Opioids Impaired spermatogenesis [76] Increased rates of DNA fragmentation in humans [89] Reduced expression of catalase-like and superoxide dismutase-like activity [89] Increase of rates of DNA damage and tubular degeneration in rats [100,101] Amphetamines and Ecstasy No data available Vasoconstriction of testicular blood vessels in rats [96] Increase in rates of DNA damage and tubular degeneration in rats [99] Table 3 Effects of tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption and drug addiction on hormone levels Studies in humans Animal studies Tobacco smoking Increase in liver metabolism of testosterone [24] Reduction of LH and/or FSH levels [34] Increase in concentration of LH and/or FSH [35] Increase in serum testosterone and DHEA levels [35,37] Reduction of testosterone levels in rats [45,46] Alcohol consumption Decrease in testosterone levels [58,59] Increase in FSH, LH, and E2 levels [60] Decrease in plasma and intra-testicular testosterone in rats [71] Drug addiction Marijuana Decrease in levels of plasma testosterone [78] Decreased levels of plasma LH, and increased levels of plasma cortisol [81] Increased serum testosterone [82] Inhibition of LHRH release in rats [92] Decrease in testosterone levels in monkeys [93] Cocaine Increase in LH levels without modifying testosterone following acute administration [97] Increase in LH levels
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A difference between genders, taking into consideration clozapine daily doses and body weights, in our data is evident
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